China Modernization Report 2007〞〞A study on the Ecological modernizationOverview﹛ |
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Contents Special thanks to the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the
Ministry of Science and Technology of the P.R. of China and the National
Natural Science Foundation of China for their successive supports to this
study! Preface Overview Part One Ecological Modernization Chapter I Objective Facts of World Ecological Modernization 1.
Methods for Analyzing Ecological Modernization (1)
Objects of Ecological Modernization Studies (2)
Multi-Dimensional Analysis of Ecological Modernization (3)
Coordinates Analysis of Ecological Modernization 2.
Time-Series Analysis of Ecological Modernization (1)
Historical Analysis of Relationship between Mankind and Nature (2)
Time-Series Analysis of Ecological Efficiency and Structure (3)
Time-Series Analysis of Ecological Institution and Concept 3.
Section Analysis of Ecological Modernization (1)
2001 Section of Ecological Modernization (2)
Seven Sections of Ecological Efficiency and Structure (3)
Eight Sections of Ecological Institution and Concept 4.
Case Studies of Ecological Modernization (1)
International Cases of Ecological Modernization (2)
Path Dependence of Ecological Modernization (3)
Relevant Evaluations of Ecological Modernization Chapter II Theoretical Studies of World Ecological Modernization 1.
Theoretical Background of Ecological Modernization (1)
Natural Sciences and Ecological Modernization (2)
Social Sciences and Ecological Modernization (3)
Multi-Disciplinary Studies and Ecological Modernization 2.
Ecological Modernization Studies in Europe (1)
Brief History of Ecological Modernization Studies (2)
European Ecological Modernization Theories (3)
Challenges to Ecological Modernization Theories 3.
General Ecological Modernization Theories (1)
Time Background of General Ecological Modernization (2)
Basic Principles of General Ecological Modernization (3)
Methods for Studying General Ecological Modernization 4.
Basic Approaches to Ecological Modernization (1)
General Path for Comprehensive Ecological Modernization (2)
General Path for Integrated Ecological Modernization (3)
Ecological Corrections to First Modernization Chapter III Analysis of China＊s Ecological Modernization Strategies 1.
International Background of China＊s Ecological Modernization (1)
Historical Experience of World Ecological Modernization (2)
Current Level of World Ecological Modernization (3)
Prospect of World Ecological Modernization 2.
Basic Conditions for China＊s Ecological Modernization (1)
Historical Review of China＊s Ecological Modernization (2)
International Comparison of China＊s Ecological Modernization (3)
Situation Analysis of China＊s Ecological Modernization 3.
Strategic Options for China＊s Ecological Modernization (1)
Strategic Goal of China＊s Ecological Modernization (2)
Canal Path for China＊s Ecological Modernization (3)
Road Map for China＊s Ecological Modernization 4.
Strategic Priorities of China＊s Ecological Modernization (1)
Three Breakthroughs of China＊s Ecological Modernization (2)
Three Distributions of China＊s Ecological Modernization (3)
Three Securities of China＊s Ecological Modernization Part Two Evaluations of Modernization in the World and China Chapter IV Three Decades of Ecological Modernization 1.
34 Years of World Ecological Modernization (1)
World Ecological Modernization Index in 2004 (2)
World Ecological Modernization Process 1970~2004 2.
34 Years of China＊s Ecological Modernization (1)
China＊s Ecological Modernization Index in 2004 (2)
China＊s Ecological Modernization Process 1970~2004 3.
China＊s Regional Ecological Modernization Process (1)
China＊s Regional Ecological Modernization Index 2004 (2)
China＊s Regional Ecological Modernization Index 2000 Chapter V World and China Modernization Indexes in 2004 1.
World Modernization Index 2004 (1)
World Modernization Index 2004 (2)
Evaluation of World Modernization Levels in 2004 2.
China＊s Modernization Index in 2004 (1)
China＊s Modernization Index 2004~2005 (2)
Evaluation of China＊s Modernization Levels 2004~2005 3.
China＊s Regional Modernization Index in 2004 (1)
China＊s Regional Modernization Index 2004~2005 (2)
Evaluation of China＊s Regional Modernization Levels 2004~2005 China Modernization Report 2007〞〞A study on the Ecological modernizationOverview We
have been living in the natural environment ever since we were born. The
natural environment provides us with life support and material and
cultural services. Without the natural environment, there will be no human
civilization. With the increase of population and the improvement of
living standard, the material demand of mankind will gradually approach
the limits of the tolerance of the natural environment and an irreversible
degradation will occur to the natural environment if we stick to the
traditional mode of development. In fact, mankind already has the ability
powerful enough to destroy the globe, which has become increasingly
incapable of satisfying the demand of mankind. In the world modernization
process, one unavoidable and growingly prominent issue is how to
scientifically handle the relationship between the natural environment,
economic development and social changes and how to realize a mutually
beneficial coupling between the advance of civilization and the natural
environment. Currently,
there are many schools of theories and thoughts and countless numbers of
academic papers on the relationship between mankind and nature. Among the
numerous theories, the ecological modernization theory put forward by
German sociologist Joseph Huber in the 1980s has become a main theory of
the environmental sociology in the developed countries. Ecological
modernization requires that the principles of prevention and innovation
should be adopted to promote a decoupling between economic growth and
environmental degradation and seek win-win results for both the economy
and the environment. Over the past two decades or so, many developed
countries have chosen ecological modernization and have made noticeable
achievements. We believe China should learn from their experience and
pursue ecological modernization. I.
Historical Facts about World
Ecological Modernization Ecological modernization is an important aspect of modernization, and represents a mutually beneficial coupling between modernization and the natural environment and an ecological transformation of world modernization. Ecological modernization began roughly in the 1970s. Although the history of ecological modernization is only a little more than three decades, the ecological effects of modernization have been in existence for about 300 years ever since the Industrial Revolution. This report will conduct time-series analysis, section analysis and case analysis of the ecological effects of modernization and the 300-year-long (1700~2001) historical process of ecological effects and transformation of modernization. These analyses cover three fields (ecological response, ecological economy and ecological society) and four aspects (ecological efficiency, ecological structure, ecological institution and ecological concept). The contents of these analyses include the long-term trends, world frontiers, international disparities and statistical analysis. The time-series analysis has 15 sample countries (eight developed countries and seven developing countries), the 2001 section analysis has 131 sample countries and 102 ecological variables, and other samples for section analysis are the main countries that have data for that year. The report summarizes 36 basic facts and six historical experiences.
1. Thirty-six Basic Facts about the Ecological Effects and Ecological Transformation of World Modernization.
(1)
Ten basic facts about ecological response: The population size and density
have risen, the fossil energy production and ecological footprint have
expanded, the per capita cultivated land, grassland and freshwater
resources have decreased, the per capita forest resources and biodiversity
have declined, the per capita steel production has risen and then
declined, the per capita mineral production has become regionally
diversified, the per capita air pollution has risen and then declined, the
per capita industrial wastewater biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) has risen
and then declined, and the greenhouse gas emission has increased but
decreased in some countries since the 18th century. The number
of nature reserves has risen since the 19th century.
(2) Ten basic facts about ecological economy: The material
productivity and land productivity have risen, the ratio of the material
economy in GDP has declined, the per capita material output value has
risen and the grain per unit area yield and modern organic agriculture
have been on the rise since the 18th century; the intensity of
chemical fertilizer use in agriculture has risen and then declined, the
economy＊s energy and resource density has risen and then declined, the
CO2 emission for unit GDP has risen and then declined, the rate
of waste recycle and use has been higher, the proportion of natural
resource consumption in GNI has been regionally different, and the
Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) has been on the rise since the 20th
century.
(3) Ten basic facts about ecological society: The ratio of material
labor force in total labor has declined since the 18th century;
the per capita service income has risen, the ratio of population with
longevity has risen, and the safe drinking-water and sanitary facilities
have increased in the urban and rural areas since the 19th
century; the rate of urban wastewater treatment has risen, the urban air
pollution has risen and then declined, the per capita urban wastes have
increased, the efficiency of energy use has declined and then risen, and
the environmental risks have been regionally different since the 20th
century.
(4) Six basic facts about ecological modernization: Since the 20th
century, the ecological efficiency and ecological structure have
constantly changed, the ecological institution and ecological concept have
constantly changed, and the ecological transformation has been highly
uneven and asynchronous, the international environmental agreements and
international pollution transfers have had global impacts, the correlation
between economic development and many per capita natural resources has
been unnoticeable in the 20th century; the modes of natural
resource production and consumption have been different from variety to
variety and from region to region. For example, the population size, the
per capita land area, the per capita agricultural land and the per capita
grassland had no tangible relationship with the per capita national income
in the last 40 years of the 20th century; the per capita arable
land, the per capita freshwater resources, the per capita forest resources
and the per capita mineral production had no tangible relationship with
the per capita income in 2001; but the per capita energy production had a
tangible positive correlation with the per capita income and so did the
population density with the per capita income.
The above are only partial facts about ecological modernization. Over the past two decades or so, the developed countries have posted both sustained economic growth and marked environmental improvement. The decoupling between the economic and environmental indicators in the OECD countries has reached 52 percent (OECD 2002).2. Six Historical Experiences of World Ecological Modernization
The history of ecological modernization has been more than three
decades if it began from the first United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment held in 1972. During this period, ecological modernization
advanced amid disputes and conflicts. In the developed countries,
especially in some West and North European countries, the progress in
ecological modernization has been remarkable. The historical experiences
of world ecological modernization are thought-provoking.
(1)
Ecological modernization is an inexorable historical trend. The growing
population density on earth, the material demand of human beings and the
discharge of wastes will all gradually approach the limits of the
tolerance of the natural environment. Although technological advance can
partially ease the pressure on the environment, technological advance
alone is not enough. An ecological transformation of the living and
modernization modes of mankind is indispensable. With the development of
globalization and with the advance in ecological modernization in the
developed countries, the developing countries cannot ignore the
international and domestic pressure for ecological modernization.
Therefore, ecological modernization will gradually become an irreversible
world trend.
(2) Ecological modernization will not be a smooth sailing.
Ecological modernization requires a rational handling of the relationship
between the economy and the environment. With economic fluctuations and
environmental changes, the people＊s concept will also undergo changes.
In an economic recession, environmental awareness will be challenged. In
an environmental crisis, economic growth will be questioned. Cars or blue
skies? There will be different answers under different conditions. Of
course, it is better to have both cars and blue skies. Ecological
modernization has been advancing in disputes.
(3) Ecological modernization requires innovation and learning.
Ecological modernization requires environment-friendly technology
innovation and institution innovation, and requires ecologically-rational
structural changes and mode changes. In this course, conceptual changes
are the most important. In the countries pioneering ecological
modernization, innovation and conceptual changes are of essential
importance. In the countries trying to catch up in ecological
modernization, learning and conceptual changes are the priority tasks and
regional innovation is also indispensable. Innovation and learning are two
leverages to push forward ecological modernization.
(4) Ecological modernization requires domestic cooperation.
Ecological modernization is an ecological revolution, which involves the
ecologically-rational changes in economy, society, politics, culture,
environmental management and personal behaviors. In the history of human
civilization, each revolution triggered a re-distribution of social
interests and fierce social conflicts. The same is true to the ecological
revolution. The governments, enterprises, societies and environmental
groups all have to face the attack of the ecological revolution. They are
both forces for the revolution and also the objects of the revolution.
They need to change other people as well as themselves. Conflicts and
cooperation are inevitable. In the 1960s and 1970s, conflicts and
confrontations constituted a striking feature of the environmental
movement. Since the 1980s, environmental cooperation has become the
mainstream though environmental struggles have continued. People＊s
cooperation and democratic participation in the environmental agenda
constitutes a typical feature of ecological modernization.
(5) Ecological modernization requires international cooperation.
The solar system has only one earth, on which all human beings live. The
air circulation, water circulation, carbon circulation, material flow and
energy flow on earth all happen on a global scale. They cross the
boundaries of countries and nations. The global climate change, the ozone
layer depletion, the air pollution spread, the waste pollution transfer,
the biodiversity protection and the rational development and utilization
of natural resources and energies all require full cooperation among all
the citizens of the globe. Air knows no boundaries. Although global
cooperation on an equal footing is still a slogan, international
cooperation has taken place in many areas.
(6) Ecological modernization has no best mode. From the world
perspective, ecological modernization can be divided into three major
categories. The first is the ecological modernization in Europe, which is
relatively ※idealistic§. Most European countries have relatively small
territories and are prone to the impact of the international environment.
Besides, the West European countries boast of fine academic traditions.
They were the first to put forward the ecological modernization theory,
pressed for environmental cooperation within the European Union, and
actively advocated ecological modernization to other countries in the
world. The second is the ecological modernization in North America, which
is relatively ※pragmatic§. The North American countries have vast
territories and rich resources, and enjoy exceptionally favorable natural
conditions. They were the first to advocate industrial ecology, pushed
forward environmental legislation and environmental improvement, cared
about biodiversity protection, and emphasized environmental quality and
economic growth. But they have had fewer theoretical innovations. The
third is the ecological modernization in the developing countries, which
is relatively ※realistic§. Most developing countries pursued
ecological modernization in light of their national conditions and in a
selective way, and the roles of their governments and scientific
communities were more prominent than their counterparts in the developed
countries. In particular, some countries chose to pursue integrated
ecological modernization and some others chose ecological corrections to
classical modernization.
Since the 1990s, while the developed countries have seen their
economies growing and environment improving, the developing countries have
come under dual pressure: economic development and environmental
protection. Meanwhile, international environmental trade and diplomacy
have been extremely active. In this course, some scholars emphasized the
tolerance of the resources and the environment and the ecological
transformation of world modernization. Some others adopted double
standards and requested the developing countries to protect the
environment and conserve the resources and the developed countries to
maintain relatively high levels of resource consumption and per capita
ecological footprint. As the developed countries are in an advantageous
position in international competition, the developing countries need to
distinguish right from wrong and avoid falling into the ※pitfall of
sustained poverty§ in world development.
II.
Basic Principles of World
Ecological Modernization
The ecological modernization theory is a theory exploring the
interaction between modernization and the natural environment. It was born
in the 1980s (Young 2000). But the ideological origin of ecological
modernization dated back much earlier. In fact, the birth of human beings
was a result of the interaction between the ※animal ancestors§ of
human beings and the natural environment. Since the 1970s, most industrial
countries have undergone the environmental reform and ecological
transformation of their social institutions and production modes. The
ecological modernization theory attempts to interpret and describe the
nature, connotation and dynamics of this transformation process (Mol
2001). The ecological modernization studies roughly underwent three
development stages.
1. European Ecological Modernization Theories
Dutch scholar Arthur P.J. Mol believes that the ecological
modernization theory was first put forward in some West European countries
such as Germany, the Netherlands and Britain in the early 1980s (Mol,
2001). This theory is mainly based on European experience and describes a
new mode, which pursues development that has economic effectiveness,
social justice and environmental friendliness. It is a win-win mode for
both the economy and the environment. Economic growth coordinates with
environmental protection and is decoupled from environmental pressure (Christoff
1996, Young 2000, Andersen 2002).
Currently, there is no unified definition of ecological
modernization. In general, it has four layers of meanings:
First, ecological modernization is a theory of environmental
sociology, which provides a sociological interpretation of environmental
reforms;
Next, ecological modernization is a new model (framework) for
understanding and analyzing the technology-intensive environmental
policies and ecological transformation;
Third, ecological modernization is a true reflection of the
progress the developed countries have made in environmental and economic
reforms since the 1980s;
Fourth, ecological modernization is a theory of social changes,
which describes the process of economic and social transformation arising
from environmental awareness, including the ecological transformation of
the production and consumption modes, the environmental and economic
policies, the modern technologies, the government administration and the
modern systems.
The core elements of ecological modernization are prevention,
innovation and structural change. It has six main points:
Ｋ
A modern industrial society requires sustained ecological restructuring to
establish ecological modernity. This ecological restructuring represents
the transformation and reform of the social practice and institutions
arising from ecological and environmental awareness. Although the current
process of ecological transformation cannot claim to be linear and
irreversible, it is eternal and hardly reversible to a certain extent (Mol
2001).
Ｌ In the course of ecological restructuring, it is imperative
to give play to the joint roles of modern technologies and the market
economy. While modern technologies constitute the core mechanism for
ecological reforms, the dynamics of economy and market are important to
ecological reforms. The industrial innovations encouraged by the market
economy and promoted by the governments can promote environmental
protection.
Ｍ Environmental challenges should be correctly treated.
Environmental challenges should be regarded as both crises and
opportunities. Pollution reduction should be regarded as a tool to
increase economic competitiveness instead of requesting the addition and
maintenance of the expensive terminal treatment technologies. Ecological
modernization can be regarded as an opportunity for environmentally
sensitive technologies (Christoff 1996).
Ｎ New environmental agendas should be established. The
establishment of new environmental agendas can help surmount various
conflicts and interests, form alliances for the environmental agendas,
manage the natural resources and environmental risks, and solve the
conventional contradictions between economic growth and related
environmental management.
Ｏ Forward-looking and preventive environmental policies
should be established. The principle of prevention should be adopted to
promote environmental reforms and to push forward the long-term structural
changes in the macroeconomic structure, the production and consumption
modes, the technology structure and the environmental policies.
Ｐ The principle of industrial ecology should be adopted to
establish participation-based strategic environmental management (Huber
2000).
2. Characteristics and Laws of General Ecological Modernization
The general ecological modernization theory is an expansion and
application of the European ecological modernization theories within a
global scope and in the sense of modernization. It is the
※third-generation theory§ in ecological modernization studies. It
believes that most of the environmental problems of modern society are
man-made and these man-made problems need to be solved by men. Ecological
modernization does not simply begin with pollution control. Instead, it
should begin with a change in the mode of human behaviors and should
achieve the win-win goals for environmental protection and economic
development by changing the modes of economic and social development. The
essential elements of the general ecological modernization are high
efficiency, low waste, no toxicity, no hazard, decoupling, win-win result,
mutual benefit and coexistence (mutualism).
(1)
General ecological modernization is a highly integral concept.
First, ecological modernization is an ecological transformation of
world modernization arising from modern ecology and environmental
awareness. It is a mutually beneficial coupling between modernization and
the natural environment. It includes a transition from material economy to
ecological economy, from material society to ecological society and from
material civilization to ecological civilization. It also includes an
improvement of the natural environment and the ecosystem, a sustained
enhancement of ecological efficiency and life quality, a profound change
in ecological structure, ecological institution and ecological concept,
and a tangible change in international competition and international
status.
Next, ecological modernization is a long and phased historical
process. From the 1970s to the end of the 21st century,
ecological modernization experiences roughly four phases: the phase of
being relatively dematerialization and greening, the phase of being highly
dematerialization and ecologization, the phase of seeking win-win results
for both the economy and the environment, and the phase of mutually
beneficial coexistence between mankind and nature. Of course, this
classification is in the relative term.
Third, ecological modernization is an international competition
lasting for more than a century. It comprises the international
competition in which various countries try to catch up with, to reach and
to maintain the world＊s advanced level, and also the changes in domestic
ecological efficiency, ecological structure, ecological institution and
ecological concept.
Fourth, ecological modernization can be viewed from both the
absolute and relative perspectives. If the domestic process of ecological
modernization is defined as an absolute ecological modernization, the
process of the changes in the international status of ecological
modernization can be regarded as a relative ecological modernization.
Ecological modernization is both a virtuous coupling between domestic
modernization and the natural environment and an international competition
in the areas where modernization and the natural environment interact.
In short, ecological modernization = ecological progress ℅
ecological economy ℅
ecological society ℅
international competition.
(2)
General ecological modernization has 15 basic features, 10 basic
principles and three basic paths.
The 15 basic features of general ecological modernization are:
relatively predictable, global, long, complicated, progressive,
transitional, systematic, incremental, uneven, irreversible world trend,
nonmaterial, green, ecological, economic and environmental win-win result,
and mutually beneficial coexistence between mankind and nature.
The 10 basic principles of general ecological modernization are:
the principle of prevention, the principle of innovation, the principle of
efficiency, the principle of unequal prices, the principle of
dematerialization, the principle of being green, the principle of
ecologization, the principle of democratic participation, the principle of
polluter paying, and the principle of economic and environmental win-win
result. In addition, many principles of natural science, technological
science, social science, humanities and composite disciplines, such as the
first law and the second law of thermodynamics, also apply to ecological
modernization.
The three basic paths of general ecological modernization are: the
path of comprehensive ecological modernization, the path of integrated
ecological modernization and the ecological corrections to classical
modernization. Ecological modernization has path dependence and
starting-point dependence, but has no best mode.
(3)
The basic requirements of general ecological modernization are
※dematerialization, greening, ecologization and decoupling§.
First, it has to be dematerialization. The basic connotations are
high efficiency, low waste, high quality and low density. High efficiency
means higher material productivity, resource productivity, energy
productivity and land productivity. Low waste means the economy and
society consume less materials, resources, energies and carbon energy.
High quality means the economy contains higher ratios of service, culture,
information and knowledge and means the qualities of the economy and life
is higher. Low density means the economy and society have lower material,
resource, energy and carbon energy densities.
Next, it has to be greening. The basic connotations are
toxicity-free, hazard-free, clean and healthy. ※Toxicity-free§ means
the lower production and emission of toxic materials and toxic wastes that
are harmful to the environment and health and also means detoxification,
low emission and pollution control. ※Hazard-free§ means the lower
production and emission of hazardous materials and hazardous wastes that
are harmful to the environment and health and also means hazard-free
treatment, low emission and pollution control. ※Clean§ means the
development of environment-friendly technologies, clean production, green
products, green energies, green transportation, green living and lower
emission. ※Healthy§ means the economy and society have higher ratios
of green elements that are friendly to the environment, hazard-free to
human beings, safe, and better in quality.
Third, it has to be ecologization. The basic connotations are
prevention, innovation, recycle and win-win result. Prevention means the
principle of prevention that highlights the development of ecological
agriculture, ecological industry, ecological tourism and ecological
cities, and also the conservation of natural and biological resources.
Innovation means the principle of innovation that highlights
environment-friendly knowledge innovation, technology innovation and
institution innovation, and also higher ecological efficiency and
ecological culture. Recycle means the recycle economy that highlights
higher ratios of waste recycling, reutilization, reproduction and
treatment. Win-win result means the win-win principle that highlights
intensified ecological reconstruction, reduced ecological degradation, and
win-win result for both the economy and the environment in the course of
economic development.
Fourth, the economy has to be decoupled from the environmental
degradation. The basic connotations are inverse decoupling and direct
coupling. Inverse decoupling means economic growth should be decoupled
from environmental degradation. In other words, economic development
should be decoupled from the growth of material demand, from the growth of
natural resource consumption, from the growth of energy consumption, from
the growth of environmental pollution and from ecological degradation.
Direct coupling means a virtuous coupling between economic development and
environmental progress.
III. Strategic Considerations for China＊s Ecological
Modernization
The starting phase of the world ecological modernization coincided with the period of China＊s reform and opening-up, during which China＊s industrialization and urbanization embarked upon a fast track and China＊s modernization drive scored remarkable progress. Accordingly, the environmental pressure arising from industrial modernization and the environmental protection required for ecological modernization formed dual challenges to China＊s modernization. There were three roads before us. The first was to repeat the old road passed by the developed industrial countries, meaning pollution first, control second and transformation last. The second was to directly adopt the current approach of the developed industrial countries, meaning ecological transformation required for comprehensive ecological modernization. The third was to adopt the principle of integrated ecological modernization, meaning that green industrialization, green urbanization and ecological modernization should advance in a coordinated manner. In light of the international and domestic conditions, we believe that integrated ecological modernization is a rational path. If this path is taken, China＊s ecological modernization is expected to reach the world＊s middle level around 2050.1. International Comparison of China＊s Ecological Modernization
First, the comparison between China＊s 121 ecological indicators
and the world levels. In 2001, China＊s 15 indicators including the per
capita grassland area and the ratio of environmental inputs in GDP were
roughly at the same levels of the developed countries. China＊s 13
indicators including the ratio of urban safe drinking water were roughly
at the world＊s average levels. China＊s 40 indicators including the
land productivity and urban air pollution (SO2 density) had a
more than five-fold relative gap with the levels of the developed
countries. China＊s 26 indicators including the intensity of industrial
energy consumption and the ratio of the availability of health facilities
in the rural areas had a more than two-fold relative gap with the levels
of the developed countries. China＊s 40 indicators including the rate of
urban waste treatment had a less than two-fold relative gap with the
levels of the developed countries.
Next, the comparison between China＊s 24 main ecological
indicators with the levels of the leading countries. Currently, China＊s
relative gap with the leading developed countries was more than 100-fold
for three indicators including the ratio of natural resource consumption
in GNI, more than 50-fold for five indicators including the freshwater
productivity, more than 10-fold for four indicators including the density
of industrial wastes, and more than two-fold for 11 indicators including
the density of chemical fertilizer use in agriculture. For example,
China＊s ratio of natural resource consumption in GNI in 2003 was roughly
more than 100-fold higher than the levels of Japan, France and South
Korea, more than 30-fold higher than the levels of Germany, Italy and
Sweden, and more than two-fold higher than the levels of the United States
and Britain. China＊s density of industrial wastes in 2002 was roughly
20-fold higher than the level of Germany, 18-fold higher than the level of
Italy, 12-fold higher than the levels of South Korea and Britain, 11-fold
higher than the level of Japan, and four-fold higher than the levels of
France and Sweden. China＊s extent of urban air pollution in 2002 was
roughly more than seven-fold higher than the levels of France, Canada and
Sweden, more than four-fold higher than the levels of the United States,
Britain and Australia, and more than two-fold higher than the levels of
Japan, Germany, Italy, South Korea and Brazil. China＊s ecological
degradation arising from agriculture and animal husbandry was also far
higher than the levels of the developed countries.
Third, the international comparison of China＊s ecological modernization index. The ecological modernization index refers to the result of a comprehensive evaluation of 30 ecological indicators measuring ecological progress, ecological economy and ecological society. It can roughly reflect the relative level of a country＊s ecological modernization. In 2004 when China was in the start stage of ecological modernization, the country＊s ecological modernization index was 42 points, ranking 84th among the 98 leading countries in the world or 100th among all the 118 countries. China＊s ecological modernization index in 2004 had a 57-point absolute gap with the average value of the high-income countries. This had a lot to do with the phase of industrialization China was in.2. Ten Challenges to China＊s Ecological Modernization
In the first half of the 21st century, China＊s
ecological modernization will face 10 challenges. The first challenge is
to enhance the people＊s modern ecological awareness and accelerate the
transition from material society to ecological society. The second
challenge is to speed up the ecological transformation of the mode of
economic development and heighten the level of ecological economy. The
third challenge is to expedite the ecological transformation of the mode
of consumption and encourage green consumption. The fourth challenge is to
formulate national energy strategies and prevent the outburst of energy
crises. The fifth challenge is to establish long-standing prevention
mechanisms and mitigate the impacts of natural disasters. The sixth
challenge is to establish mechanisms for ecological compensation and allow
modernization to benefit all citizens. The seventh challenge is to raise
the level of environmental credit and establish environmental
responsibility institutions. The eighth challenge is to take full
advantage of the opportunities arising from globalization to develop
international resources and markets. The ninth challenge is to implement
the National Plan for Ecological
Environment Construction and quicken ecological modernization in the
west region. The tenth challenge is to advocate the scientific approach to
development and build a resource-saving and environment-friendly society.
Without modern ecological awareness, there will be no ecological modernization. Popularizing ecological knowledge and heightening the people＊s modern ecological awareness are crucial to the success of China＊s ecological modernization. Modern ecological awareness is based on the theories of modern ecology, environmental science, economics and ecological modernization. It advocates high efficiency, low waste, high quality, low density, no toxicity, no hazard, cleanness, safety, recycle, conservation, fairness, win-win result, green production, green consumption, prevention, innovation, health and environment-friendliness. It holds that the polluters should pay, the beneficiaries should supervise, the signers should be responsible and the wrongdoers should be punished. It opposes resource waste, environmental pollution, ecological damage and excess consumption, and tries hard to realize a complete decoupling between economic development and environmental degradation, a virtuous coupling between social progress and environmental progress, and a mutually beneficial coexistence between mankind and nature.3. Strategic Options for China＊s Ecological Modernization
In the next five decades, China＊s ecological modernization can
make breakthroughs in three areas: ecological economy, ecological society
and ecological awareness. Taking ※dematerialization, greening,
ecologization and decoupling§ (decoupling economic growth from
environmental degradation) as the main thrusts, the country＊s ecological
modernization will strive to complete the ecological transformation of the
mode of modernization and to realize a strategic change in environmental
management from the mode emphasizing emergency response to the mode
emphasizing prevention and innovation. We suggest that in the first half
of the 21st century, the following 10 measures should be taken
to promote China＊s ecological modernization.
(1)
A road map for China＊s ecological modernization and its national and
regional ecological modernization should be formulated and implemented.
A road map for China＊s ecological modernization represents a
collection of the strategic goals and canal path of China＊s ecological
modernization. Its main contents can be divided into eight parts: the
canal path, the strategic goals, the basic tasks, the monitoring
indicators, the monitoring of ecological progress, the monitoring of
ecological economy, the monitoring of ecological society, and the
strategic measures for China＊s ecological modernization.
First, the canal path for China＊s ecological modernization: In
accordance with the principle of integrated ecological modernization,
efforts should be made to coordinate and push forward ecological
modernization, integrated modernization, green industrialization, green
urbanization; modernization should be knowledge-based, light-weighted,
greening and ecologization, should realize an absolute decoupling of
economic development from environmental degradation and should seek
win-win result for both the economy and the environment; China should try
to catch up with the level of ecological modernization in the developed
countries. China＊s ecological modernization can reach the world＊s
middle level in 2050 and the world＊s advanced level at the end of the 21st
century respectively.
Next, the strategic goals of China＊s ecological modernization:
China＊s ecological modernization will reach the world＊s middle level
in the first half of the 21st century, its economic growth will
be absolutely decoupled from environmental degradation, ecological
modernization will be largely realized, and its level of ecological
modernization will be among the top 40 countries in the world. In the
second half of the 21st century, a virtuous coupling between
the economy and the environment progress will be realized, ecological
modernization will reach the world＊s advanced level, comprehensive
ecological modernization will be realized, and the level of ecological
modernization will rank among the top 20 countries in the world.
Third, the basic tasks of China＊s ecological modernization: We
have to accomplish three basic tasks in the 21st century. One,
China＊s ecological modernization will go up three steps internationally.
The international level of China＊s ecological modernization will move
from the low level to the preliminary level around 2020, rise to the
world＊s middle level by 2050 and reach the world＊s advanced level by
2100. Two, the historical process of China＊s ecological modernization
will move through three phases. The historical process of China＊s
ecological modernization will be in the starting phase in 2000, enter the
developing phase around 2030, reach the mature phase around 2050, and
reach the stable phase around 2080. Three, the international status of
China＊s ecological modernization will advance by about 80 rankings.
China＊s ecological modernization index will be about 40 rankings higher
in the first half of the 21st century and another 40 rankings
higher in the ensuing five decades.
Fourth, the monitoring indicators of China＊s ecological
modernization: 36 monitoring indicators for ecological progress,
ecological economy and ecological society; 36 monitoring indicators
respectively for China＊s social modernization and for its economic
modernization. In all, 108 monitoring indicators will be used to measure
China＊s modernization drive.
Fifth, the monitoring of ecological progress
in China＊s ecological modernization: 12 indicators including
environmental quality and land quality, and the general goals, staged
goals (2010 每 2020 每 2030 每 2040 每 2050) and tasks for the first
half of the 21st century.
Sixth, the monitoring of ecological economy in
China＊s ecological modernization: 12 indicators including
ecological efficiency and ecological structure, and the general goals,
staged goals (2010 每 2020 每 2030 每 2040 每 2050) and tasks for the
first half of the 21st century.
Seventh, the monitoring of ecological society in China＊s
ecological modernization: 12 indicators including green homeland and green
living, and the general goals, staged goals (2010 每 2020 每 2030 每
2040 每 2050) and the tasks for the first half of the 21st
century.
Eighth, the strategic measures for China＊s ecological
modernization: three breakthroughs, namely ecological economy, ecological
society and ecological awareness; three distributions, namely sectional
distribution, geographic distribution and technological distribution;
three securities, namely resource security, energy security and
environmental security.
The next two decades (2020~2030) will be an extremely crucial
period for China＊s ecological modernization. During this period, China
will gradually complete industrialization and urbanization, its population
size will reach the maximum value, and its resource demand and
environmental pressure will likely reach the maximum values. We suggest an
expert group be set up to consider national and regional strategies for
ecological modernization in the next two decades.
(2)
Green development road should be adopted to control and reduce new
environmental pollution.
The principles of the green development road are: high efficiency,
low waste, high quality, low density, high standard, low emission, no
toxicity, no hazard, cleanness, health, mutually beneficial coupling
between green industrialization, green urbanization and environmental
protection, and win-win result for both development and environmental
protection.
First, the road of green industrialization. The CMR 2005 specified
the features of new industrialization. Simply put, new industrialization
means information, knowledge, greening and ecological corrections to the
traditional industrialization and also means a systematic integration of
industrialization, information-based industry, knowledge-based industry,
environment-based industry, ecology-based industry and globalization. By
implementing the new industrialization strategies and by taking the green
industrialization road, the environmental pressure from newly-built
industries will be reduced. Green industrialization has 10 specific
requirements and measures.
Next, the road of green urbanization. The CMR 2006 put forward the
new strategies for urbanization and suggested that urbanization,
suburbanization, information-based city, knowledge-based city,
environment-based city, ecology-based city and internationalization
develop in a coordinated way so as to build a green homeland that
highlights urban-rural equilibrium. By implementing the new urbanization
strategies and by taking the green urbanization road, the newly-added
urban pollution will be reduced and controlled. Green urbanization has 10
specific requirements and measures.
Third, other environmental projects should be executed
simultaneously, such as the green homeland project and the green
consumption project.
(3) The programs to control pollution and transform traditional
industries should be continued so as to eliminate the environmental
pollution left over from the past.
The programs to control environmental pollution in an integrated
way in key regions and key industries should continue. First, in the
regions and river valleys where traditional industries and polluting
industries concentrate, the pollution-control projects should be executed
to eliminate the environmental pollution left over from the past and to
control and reduce new pollution. Next, the traditional industries and
especially the resource-intensive, energy-intensive and
pollution-intensive traditional industries should have their industrial
processes transformed for environmental sound so as to control and reduce
industrial pollution. Third, the total-amount pollution control regime and
the emission permit institution should continue to be observed. Fourth,
records and rankings should be established for the enterprises emitting
toxic materials and pollutants, and should be published on a regular
basis.
(4)
The ecological improvement projects such as the one for natural forest
conservation should continue and the national ecosystem evaluations should
be held on a regular basis.
The projects designed to protect natural forests, to facilitate
forestation and to build planted forests should continue so as to increase
forest coverage to about 35 percent in 2050 and about 40 percent in 2100.
Construction of nature reserves should be sped up, the project to
※revert cultivated land back to forestation§ should be improved, and
the natural grassland and pastures should be protected and improved. The
goals and tasks specified in the ※National Plan for Ecological
Environment Construction§ should be implemented in a comprehensive way.
(5)
Active efforts should be made to promote the construction of ecological
cities, ecological urban areas, ecological parks and ecological rural
areas.
The construction of ecological cities has six priorities. First,
planning should be done for ecological cities and ecological urban areas.
Second, the ecological reconstruction of old urban areas should be
encouraged and new ecological cities should be built. Third, the waste and
wastewater treatment capacities of the cities should be expanded and the
environment of the cities should be improved. Fourth, urban landscaping
should be expanded and clean energy and green transportation should be
developed. Fifth, urban residents should be encouraged to choose a green
and ecological sound way of life. Sixth, the cities should be encouraged
to adopt the environmental standards such as those for model environment
city, model habitation environment and environmentally beautiful town and
township.
The construction of ecological rural areas covers six aspects.
First, the Plan of Action for Ecological Homeland and Enriching the People
should continue to be executed, clean energies should be developed and
rural sanitation projects should be promoted. Second, the Project to
Improve Rural Water Supply and Toilets should continue to be executed so
as to increase the coverage of safe drinking-water and health facilities
in the rural areas. Third, the Project of ※Reverting Cultivated Land
Back to Forestation§ and the construction of nature reserves should
continue to be improved so as to enhance the ecological quality of the
rural areas. Fourth, the structures of rural energy and transportation
should be improved to enhance the quality of the rural life. Fifth,
ecological agriculture, organic agriculture and pasture agriculture should
be developed to increase the income of the peasants. Sixth, the process of
urbanization should be expedited to reduce the density of the rural
population and the pressure on the rural environment.
(6) Three ecological industries should be developed: ecological
agriculture, environmental industry and recycle economy-based industry.
The ecological agriculture can be divided into four layers. First,
the peasants, farms, pastures and agricultural enterprises should be
encouraged to develop ecological agriculture, organic agriculture, natural
agriculture, or pasture agriculture. Second, the development of
specialized ecological agricultural zones or ecological agricultural towns
and townships should be encouraged. Third, the organic food and green food
industries should be developed. Fourth, the development of ecological
agricultural counties should be encouraged.
The environmental industry can be divided into four aspects. First,
the utilization of waste resources and the development of renewable
energies should be encouraged. Second, the development of environmental
technologies and the technical and commercial services for environmental
protection should be encouraged. Third, the development of the enterprises
that produce and provide environmental products and services should be
promoted. Fourth, the development of environmental parks should be
encouraged. All environmental industries should raise their own resource
utilization efficiency and reduce their energy and material consumption
and waste emission.
The development of the recycle economy-based industry can be divided into four aspects. First, the enterprises should be encouraged to increase waste re-utilization, reproduction and recycle. Second, the development of the waste collection and service industries should be encouraged and the construction of the outlets engaged in sorted waste recycling and waste recycling should be encour |